doi: 10.1093/ejo/cjr106, Toom, V., Wienroth, M., MCharek, A., Prainsack, B., Williams, R., Duster, T., et al. Comput. Facial Dev. The PAX3 gene is associated with the distance between the mid-endocanthion point and surface nasion with a mean distance of 17.5 mm with differing axis values up to 6.7 mm (x), 17.7 mm (y), and 18.9 mm (z). DNA methylation mediates genetic liability to non-syndromic cleft lip/palate. doi: 10.1038/ng.2971, Van der Beek, M. C., Hoeksma, J. Facial shape and features are the result of mutations, genetic drift, recombination and natural selection. Genet. WebLike Italian faces, the Irish ones seem to have a wisdom -- they've seen the worst the world can dish out, the difference being that the Irish are still proud of being tough enough to For an individual who can sit still with a neutral facial posture in natural head position, the speed of capture is not critical. The possible evolutionary advantages of facial phenotypes have been discussed extensively but anthropological hypotheses can be tested using genetic and facial phenotype data. Anthropol. doi: 10.1016/0002-9416(82)90073-2, Rivezzi, G., Piscitelli, P., Scortichini, G., Giovannini, A., Diletti, G., Migliorati, G., et al. Your dinner is not Clin. 143, 845854. 10:e1004572. Face height (28.8%), width of the eyes (10.4%) and prominence of the nose (6.7%) explained 46% of total facial variance (Toma et al., 2012). (2018). Table 2 highlights that genetic variants influencing facial morphology can have pleiotropic effects on parts of the body independent to the brain and surrounding craniofacial structures (e.g., cardiovascular, endocrine, gastro-intestinal, central nervous, musculo-skeletal and uro-genital systems). Genet. Effect of low-dose testosterone treatment on craniofacial growth in boys with delayed puberty. Int. Hum. The premise of reverse genetics is that there is known function of a gene or a group of genes which will create a particular phenotype with a degree of certainty. doi: 10.1001/jamapediatrics.2017.0778, Munn, L., and Stephan, C. N. (2018). Future work could utilize meditation techniques (Tobi et al., 2018) or Mendelian randomization (Relton and Davey Smith, 2012) to formally investigate the possibility that prenatal exposures influence orofacial cleft risk via epigenetic processes. The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. Genet. Dent. 21, 137143. J. Orthod. Large-scale in-vivo Caucasian facial soft tissue thickness database for craniofacial reconstruction. 1. J. Orthod. doi: 10.1093/ije/dyg070, Som, P. M., and Naidich, T. P. (2013). 6:737. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00737, Bird, A. (2008). doi: 10.1098/rspb.2000.1327, Little, A. C., Penton-Voak, I. S., Burt, D. M., and Perrett, D. I. Craniofac. 115, 561597. Medical Image Understanding and Analysis. J. Med. Surg. J. Med. 1),S126S146. Difference Between Scottish and Irish Do Scots-Irish Americans Have A Certain Look? (lease, landlords Genet. Oral Surg. There is clearly a place in forensic science to develop a robust diagnostic tool to determine age, ancestry, appearance, relatedness and sex from DNA samples. Predominantly genetic influences have been reported for anterior face height, relative prominence of the maxilla and mandible, width of the face/nose, nasal root shape, naso-labial angle, allometry and centroid size (Carels et al., 2001; Carson, 2006; Jelenkovic et al., 2010; Djordjevic et al., 2013a,b, 2016; Cole et al., 2017; Tsagkrasoulis et al., 2017). Another even smaller group of Irish people (around 1% of the population) have black hair, light or tan skin, and brown eyes. The pure Anglo Saxon type is Nordic looking like people from Scandinavia. The Celts originated in Asia minor and Iberia and would have absorbed man doi: 10.1073/pnas.0914628107. However they differ in the way these ingredients are used. Alcohol. Eur. Biol. Nose shape and climate. doi: 10.1007/s10519-013-9627-5, Morris, A. P., Voight, B. F., Teslovich, T. M., Ferreira, T., Segre, A. V., Steinthorsdottir, V., et al. Estimating the sex-specific effects of genes on facial attractiveness and sexual dimorphism. B., Manyama, M., Kimwaga, E., Mathayo, J., Larson, J. R., Liberton, D. K., et al. Cleft lip and palate. doi: 10.2174/157015907781695955, Wilde, S., Timpson, A., Kirsanow, K., Kaiser, E., Kayser, M., Unterlnder, M., et al. doi: 10.1016/0002-9416(79)90274-4, Biedermann, A., Bozza, S., and Taroni, F. (2015). Scientists Reveal 'Most Beautiful' British Faces - Newsweek Many of the previously discussed genetic variants associated with facial traits in GWAS reside in non-protein coding regions of the genome with unclear functional relevance. Feeling a bit down, have a cup of tea. However, recent studies suggest that DNA has the potential to identify an individual from a small group of possible candidates (Claes et al., 2014; Biedermann et al., 2015; Kayser, 2015). most beautiful faces Forensic Sci. J. Environ. Hum. (2016). J. Craniofac. U.S.A. 107(Suppl. This is where the Scottish and Irish kilts differ the most, as the tartan in which the kilts are made have very different origins and meanings. Genome-wide association study of primary tooth eruption identifies pleiotropic loci associated with height and craniofacial distances. 39, 57106. doi: 10.1111/ocr.12012, Djordjevic, J., Lawlor, D. A., Zhurov, A. I., Toma, A. M., Playle, R., and Richmond, S. (2013b). Genet. A genome-wide association scan in admixed Latin Americans identifies loci influencing facial and scalp hair features. (2018). 281:20141639. doi: 10.1098/rspb.2014.1639, Rachdaoui, N., and Sarkar, D. K. (2014). doi: 10.1093/ije/dyy032. Asymmetry is preserved in some of these techniques. Strong levels of phenotypic and genotypic spousal assortment have been previously demonstrated for height (Robinson et al., 2017) and similar methods could be applied using facial phenotypes to explore the influences of facial morphology on mate choice. 26, 6469. There has been significant progress in the first 6 years of GWAS and facial genetics. doi: 10.3174/ajnr.A3414, Stanier, P., and Moore, G. E. (2004). et al., 2015) and Mendelian randomization can provide information on the genetic overlap of facial phenotypes with other genetic traits and the possibility to causally assess the association of risk factors with face development (Smith and Ebrahim, 2003). Z., Segurel, L., Tung, J. Y., and Hinds, D. A. Genet. The generated images were Dentofacial Orthop. I notice that many folks from the South and Lower Midwest (especially Kentucky, Indiana and Tennessee), where Irish and Scottish ancestry are the most Nat. Pathol. Genet. reddit doi: 10.1002/humu.22054, Heike, C. L., Upson, K., Stuhaug, E., and Weinberg, S. M. (2010). Genetic mapping reveals ancestry between Ireland & Scotland Is anyone else able to easily spot an Irish person by facial features doi: 10.1111/j.1601-6343.2007.00386.x, Marcucio, R., Hallgrimsson, B., and Young, N. M. (2015). Genetics 205, 967978. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 674685. From birth to adulthood there are significant body and facial changes. Acad. The important link between facial variation and nsCL/P is highlighted by a study comparing facial morphologies (linked to genes) of children with nsCL/P and unaffected relatives. Association between prenatal alcohol exposure and craniofacial shape of children at 12 Months of Age. PLoS Genet. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0093442, Lange, S., Shield, K., Koren, G., Rehm, J., and Popova, S. (2014). Rep. 7:10444. doi: 10.1038/s41598-017-10752-w. Hammond, N. L., Dixon, J., and Dixon, M. J. Kau, C. H., Richmond, S., Zhurov, A. I., Knox, J., Chestnutt, I., Hartles, F., et al. SR, ES, LH, and SL highlighted the shared facial traits. Vig (Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell). The aim will be to continually develop and advance existing computerized tools and algorithms to solve these complex problems and this will require a multidisciplinary and internationally based team. In addition, there is evidence of pleiotropy, quantitative phenotypes and Mendelian traits all influencing multiple phenotypes suggesting a large number of loci contribute additively to facial variation. 227, 474486. doi: 10.1002/ajpa.1330120412, Wickstrm, R. (2007). Forensic Sci. Fatemifar, G., Hoggart, C. J., Paternoster, L., Kemp, J. P., Prokopenko, I., Horikoshi, M., et al. Identification of 15 loci influencing height in a Korean population. Orienting the causal relationship between imprecisely measured traits using GWAS summary data. 9:462. doi: 10.3389/fgene.2018.00462. Vertical facial growth and statural growth in girls: a longitudinal comparison. 50, 513508. Childbirth 14:127. doi: 10.1186/1471-2393-14-127, Le, T. T., Farkas, L. G., Ngim, R. C., Levin, L. S., and Forrest, C. R. (2002). 14:e1007501. They just released a fascinating study which aligns many pictures of individuals from every country and created composite images of what the average face would look like. One of the key differences is that the Prince Charlie has more buttons, as well as silk tails on the back. Hu, D., and Helms, J. Genet. In particular, the strong effects that genetic variation can have on facial appearance are highlighted by historical portraits of the European royal family, the Habsburgs (14381740). PRDM16 is linked to the length and the prominence of the nose as well as the width of the alae, SOX9 is thought to be related to the shape of the ala and nose tip, variation in SUPT3H is thought to influence naso-labial angle and shape of the bridge of the nose, while centroid size (squared root of the squared distances of all landmarks of the face from the centroid) and allometry (relationship of size to shape) have been linked to PDE8A and SCHIP17 genes, respectively, (Cole et al., 2016). Associations of mandibular and facial asymmetriesa review. Part A 143, 11431149. Similarly, it has been hypothesized that maternal smoking may influence facial morphology and be a risk factor for cleft lip and palate (Xuan et al., 2016) with DNA methylation a possible mediator (Armstrong et al., 2016). doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0162250, Evans, D. M. (2018). Craniofacial enhancers have also been identified acting between the non-coding regions and proposed as a possible instrumental factor in some cleft cases (Wilderman et al., 2018). Sci. There is the potential for relationships between medical and facial conditions to be explored using genetic summary data. Eur. Facial phenotypes can influence mate choice and be under selection pressures. Trans. In addition, genetic and environmental factors will have subtle influences on the face. Key transcriptional factors (activators or repressors) have been identified indicating extensive activation during early craniofacial development. Genet. Nat. WebThese are the major differences between an Irish and a Scottish accent. (2017). Int. Most Scottish people have brown hair, - Disentangling the environmental factors and relative parental biological contributions to heritable traits can help to answer the age-old question why we look the way that we do?. J. Hum. Impressions of an individuals health are integral to social interactions and judgments are made on the visual appearance of skin, degree of roundness of the face and facial expression (Henderson et al., 2016). (2014). 8:e1002932. Biol. Int. doi: 10.1016/j.fsigen.2015.02.003, Keating, B., Bansal, A. T., Walsh, S., Millman, J., Newman, J., Kidd, K., et al. Genet. Recognizable features of the human face develop around the 4th week of gestation and are closely related to cranial neural crest cells (Marcucio et al., 2015). 2016:3054578. doi: 10.1155/2016/3054578, Ruiz-Linares, A., Adhikari, K., Acua-Alonzo, V., Quinto-Sanchez, M., Jaramillo, C., Arias, W., et al. Tobi, E. W., Slieker, R. C., Luijk, R., Dekkers, K. F., Stein, A. D., Xu, K. M., et al. The use of ordinal and quantitative measures has been explored reporting good correlation with inter-alae and lower lip distances (r = 0.7) and poor association for naso-labial angle (r = 0.16) (Adhikari et al., 2016). 268, 3944. (2009). GWAS may be underestimating and twin and family studies overestimating the levels of heritability. Early growth genetics (EGG) consortium. For the Scottish, they have Prince Charlie and the Argyle designs. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The first thing guests are offered when entering an Irish persons home is a cup of tea. (2016). doi: 10.1111/acer.13820, Tanner, J. M., Whitehouse, R. H., and Takaishi, M. (1966a). Do Irish people have hooded eyelids? (2007). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. The role of sonic hedgehog in normal and abnormal craniofacial morphogenesis. Despite some evidence for positive correlation between blood and lip tissue DNA methylation (Alvizi et al., 2017; Howe et al., 2018b), the extent to which blood is a suitable proxy is unknown. 33, 817825. Craniofac. Natl. Inside the human body, in Creation, ed. 9:63. doi: 10.1186/s13148-017-0362-2, Shi, M., Wehby, G. L., and Murray, J. C. (2008). Acad. Res. Toma, A. M., Zhurov, A., Playle, R., and Richmond, S. (2008). The use of machine-learning and artificial intelligence approaches will be crucial in future GWAS studies to determine patterns and linkages in the numerous large data sets generated and archived related to craniofacial development functional genomics. They tend to have red hair, freckles, lighter complexion, pronounced cheekbones, rounder face, blue eyes & green eyes. (2010). J. Neuroradiol. Int. Am. 3. doi: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1006616. J. The Scottish Accent Genet. Genetic and environmental influences on growth from late childhood to adulthood: a longitudinal study of two Finnish twin cohorts. Genome-wide association study of facial morphology reveals novel associations with FREM1 and PARK2. Hum. Media 4, 1732. (2017). 59(Suppl. Frontonasal dysmorphology in bipolar disorder by 3D laser surface imaging and geometric morphometrics: comparisons with schizophrenia. One possibility is that these variants may influence facial phenotypes through gene regulation pathways involving epigenetic processes. These factors can then affect reproductive behavior and lead to population-level changes in facial variation as certain facial phenotypes are favored. Its a (2007). (2013). doi: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1007081, Henderson, A. J., Holzleitner, I. J., Talamas, S. N., and Perrett, D. I. Touch device users, explore by touch or with swipe gestures. Scott, I. M., Clark, A. P., Boothroyd, L. G., and Penton-Voak, I. S. (2013). AJNR Am. The influence of snoring, mouth breathing and apnoea on facial morphology in late childhood: a three-dimensional study. There have been nine GWAS studies and it is appropriate to try and integrate their findings through a meta-analysis. The pattern of facial skeletal growth and its relationship to various common indexes of maturation. Heritability studies have provided insight into the possible genetic and environmental contributions to face shape. 32, 122. Genome-wide mapping of global-to-local genetic effects on human facial shape. usually an angry face with an open gorilla mouth. 24, 286292. Features: Some Swedes have a full faces, with the eyes high up. Standardized clinical facial charts/tables/measures are routinely used for newborns (e.g., head circumference, body length) and other specialties such as, ophthalmology and orthodontics. Assessment and judgment of the face and body can be traced back to the ancient Greeks and Egyptians when mathematical methods such as Fibonacci series and the golden proportion (1:1.618) were applied to art and architecture as a method of defining attractiveness and beauty (Ricketts, 1982). Clin. Historical migrations, such as the European colonization of Latin America, led to genetic admixture (breeding between individuals from previously isolated populations) (Hellenthal et al., 2014), which greatly influenced the facial morphology of the Latin American population. The implication that the Irish, English, Scottish and Welsh have a great deal in common with each other, at least from the geneticists point of view, seems likely to In addition, anthropometric masks have been proposed whereby five landmarks are used to crudely orientate the 3D facial shells which are then non-rigidly mapped on to a template which generates about 10,000 quasi landmarks (Claes et al., 2012). Population cohort studies enables researchers to study the environmental, disease and metabolic risk factors and genetic interactions from pre-birth throughout the lifecourse. J. Toxicol. doi: 10.1093/hmg/ddu150, Crouch, D. J. M., Winney, B., Koppen, W. P., Christmas, W. J., Hutnik, K., Day, T., et al. Genet. Difference Between Scottish and Irish doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1097-0177(199904)214:4<291::AID-AJA2>3.0.CO;2-E, Beaty, T. H., Murray, J. C., Marazita, M. L., Munger, R. G., Ruczinski, I., Hetmanski, J. Hum. J. Plast. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60695-4, Muggli, E., Matthews, H., Penington, A., Claes, P., OLeary, C., Forster, D., et al. (2012). The growing number of GWAS datasets has allowed exploration of the shared genetic influences on different phenotypes (Bulik-Sullivan B. et al., 2015; Pickrell et al., 2016). (2016). Last year, the dark-skinned, blue-eyed facial reconstruction of Cheddar Man, a 10,000-year-old British resident, made international headlines and sparked discussions about native identity in a nation grappling with Brexit and issues of migration.. Now, a new exhibit is revealing the faces of seven more ancient locals from the coast of southern Med. Despite the promise of early craniofacial epigenetic studies, there are important caveats worth noting. Behav. These are interesting answers. I am not sure if I can add anything or not, but I think there are a couple of areas that should be addressed. First, 5. Updated Clinical Guidelines for Diagnosing Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders. Three-dimensional imaging methods for quantitative analysis of facial soft tissues and skeletal morphology in patients with orofacial clefts: a systematic review. The foot, including toes, is longer than the face is high, and the hand, up to fingertips, at least 3/4 of the height of the face. Previous epigenome-wide association studies (EWAS) have found evidence of differential DNA methylation between cleft cases and controls (Alvizi et al., 2017), as well as between the different orofacial cleft subtypes (Sharp et al., 2017) implicating the relevance of DNA methylation in craniofacial development. bioRxiv:322255. doi: 10.1038/s41588-018-0100-5, Idemyor, V. (2014). Facial features can be broadly characterized in terms of the size and shape of the whole face and/or its component parts (e.g., big/small head; short/long and wide/thin face, prominent or retrusive chin). (2016). Birth Defects Res. Variations of this toast include slinte mhaith "good health" in Irish ( mhaith being the lenited form of maith "good"). Sci. Curr. 67, 261268. doi: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1004572, Schmidt, E., and Kornfeld, J. W. (2016). Self-perceived attractiveness influences human female preferences for sexual dimorphism and symmetry in male faces. Epigenetic regulation of gene expression: how the genome integrates intrinsic and environmental signals. 23, 44524464. 13:e1006616. Human facial shape and size heritability and genetic correlations. Genet. doi: 10.1093/ejo/18.6.549, Van Otterloo, E., Williams, T., and Artinger, K. B. Those distillation processes might not seem like a big difference, but the effect is pretty pronounced. Biol. There is no one answer to this question as everyone has their own unique facial features. J. Med. With increased sample sizes, improved understanding of shared genetic influences on human traits and advancement in techniques there is likely to be significant further progress in the next 6 years. Most modern Celts have dark hair and a red beard. Direc. Eye width and ear nasion distance and nasion -zygoma eyes distances are linked to C5orf50. A significant number of genes are integrally involved in cranial neural crest cells and patternation of the craniofacial complex (e.g., C5orf50, MAFB, and PAX3). Phenotypic abnormalities: terminology and classification. Endogenous bone morphogenetic proteins regulate outgrowth and epithelial survival during avian lip fusion. Proc. doi: 10.1038/ng.3211, Carels, C., Van Cauwenberghe, N., Savoye, I., Willems, G., Loos, R., Derom, C., et al. 13:e1007081. What Are Typical Irish Facial Features Irish Features? They both use potatoes, oats, barley, dairy products, lamb, bacon, herring, salmon, scallops, and beef. Forensic Sci. English, Irish, Scots: Theyre All One, Genes Suggest Natl. Similarly, the naso-labial angle will be associated with nose prominence and DCHS2 is linked to both traits. The collective use of these techniques to identify the various facial features will increase the robustness of linking the DNA to a likely suspect/candidate. Celt (people (2018). (1996). Surg. ORahilly, R. (1972). The shade NW10 is very pale. Why are Irish Pale? A comparison of the prevalence of prenatal alcohol exposure obtained via maternal self-reports versus meconium testing: a systematic literature review and meta-analysis. This includes high cheekbones, a bent nose, reddish brown skin tone and coarse, dark hair. 7 Articles, This article is part of the Research Topic, Acquiring Facial Surface Morphology and Describing/Quantifying Facial Shape, Disentangling Genetic and Environmental Factors, Understanding the Etiology of Craniofacial Anomalies, Shared Influences of Facial and Other Traits, Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). Psychol. Res. Two-step epigenetic Mendelian randomization: a strategy for establishing the causal role of epigenetic processes in pathways to disease. doi: 10.1016/j.breast.2006.08.001, Kuijpers, M. A., Chiu, Y. T., Nada, R. M., Carels, C. E., and Fudalej, P. S. (2014). A. Genetic and facial phenotype data can be used to improve understanding of human history. J. Med. A population-based cross-sectional study of the association between facial morphology and cardiometabolic risk factors in adolescence. Orthod. 137(4 Suppl):S56.e1-9; discussion S56-7. However, large-scale population studies are needed to identify more genetic variants not only in the context of facial shape but general body development with particularly attention to puberty. Genetic interactions or epistasis may also explain the low levels of variance recorded. Investigating an imprinting-like phenomenon in humans: partners and opposite-sex parents have similar hair and eye colour. TABLE 3. (2012). Proc. Commun. (2018). January 21, 2022 scottish vs irish facial featurescan gradescope tell if you screenshot. 2. (2001). Forensic Sci. Periderm: Life-cycle and function during orofacial and epidermal development. Development 126, 48734884. The genome is comprised of 3.2 billion nucleotides wrapped in octomeric units of histones (chromatin). doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-801311-3.00002-0, Reik, W. (2007). doi: 10.1111/ipd.12072, Attanasio, C., Nord, A. S., Zhu, Y., Blow, M. J., Li, Z., Liberton, D. K., et al. Int. The Irish temperament is world-famous. Irish For example, a masculine face has been hypothesized to be a predictor of immunocompetence (Scott et al., 2013). 10, 8287. Enhancers have a specific role in the expression of a target gene in different cells, anatomical regions and during different developmental time-points (Visel et al., 2009; Attanasio et al., 2013; Wilderman et al., 2018). 36, 373380. Sci. 45, 414419. Sci. Irish Facial Features Irish Features Forensic Sci. doi: 10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.12.021, Peng, S., Tan, J., Hu, S., Zhou, H., Guo, J., Jin, L., et al. DNA methylation in newborns and maternal smoking in pregnancy: genome-wide consortium meta-analysis. J. Orthod. The availability of summary statistics on large GWAS studies will also enable the application of quantitative genetics methods to further investigate the genetic architecture of facial morphology. 11, 154158. doi: 10.1038/ng.3406, Bulik-Sullivan, B. K., Loh, P. R., Finucane, H. K., Ripke, S., and Yang, J. 2. Eur. Nat. The term Gaelic, as a language, applies only to the language of Scotland. doi: 10.2217/epi-2017-0081, Kim, J. J., Lee, H. I., Park, T., Kim, K., Lee, J. E., Cho, N. H., et al. http://preparetoserve.com Scottish accent vs Irish accent (funny). Orthodont. Epigenomics 10, 2742. (2014b). Top. doi: 10.1016/j.toxrep.2015.05.011, Mitchem, D. G., Purkey, A. M., Grebe, N. M., Carey, G., Garver-Apgar, C. E., Bates, T. C., et al. Many of these substances can cross the placenta (Naphthalene a volatile polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon related to solvent emissions is present in household products and pesticides Mirghani et al., 2015; Nicotine Wickstrm, 2007; Drugs and alcohol Lange et al., 2014). Another mechanism via which environmental influences can affect facial traits is natural selection, where certain facial traits may have beneficial effects on reproductive fitness. B., Manyama, M., Larson, J. R., Liberton, D. K., Ferrara, T. M., Riccardi, S. L., et al. Heredity 105:4. doi: 10.1038/hdy.2010.54, Gluckman, P. D., Hanson, M. A., and Beedle, A. S. (2007). Nat. doi: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2018.05.016, Neiswanger, K., Weinberg, S. M., Rogers, C. R., Brandon, C. A., Cooper, M. E., Bardi, K. M., et al. Sharman, N. (2011). Does sexual dimorphism in facial soft tissue depths justify sex distinction in craniofacial identification? Epigenetic processes are particularly relevant to craniofacial phenotypes because of the general importance of epigenetic gene regulation during embryonic development (Reik, 2007) and their specific role in neural crest development (Hu et al., 2014). PLoS Genet. Orthodont. Development 143, 26772688. (2014). 50:414. doi: 10.1038/s41588-018-0057-4, Claes, P., Walters, M., and Clement, J. - Improved understanding of historical selection and adaptation relating to facial phenotypes, for example, skin pigmentation and geographical latitude. doi: 10.1597/07-064.1, Merks, J. H., van Karnebeek, C. D., Caron, H. N., and Hennekam, R. C. (2003). The maternal environment is thought to play an important role with regards to orofacial clefts. Nat. 47, 12361241. doi: 10.1097/SCS.0b013e3181577b1b, Hallgrimsson, B., Mio, W., Marcucio, R. S., and Spritz, R. (2014). Almond-shaped, heavy eyes are characteristic of Cherokee Indians, a trait that is due to an extra fold in the eyelid. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2016-015410, Marazita, M. (2007). Prevention may be challenging (other than continually improving environmental conditions and reducing exposure to potential epigenetic factors) as facial development occurs very early in gestation during a period whereby the mother is often unaware she is pregnant.